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*There is a strong '''reliance on road transport'''. In 2014, passenger cars contributed to over 70% of the European passenger transport overall<ref>EEA. (2016). Term 2016: ''Fundamental changes needed for sustainable mobility.'' Retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/term-2016-fundamental-changes-needed. </ref>
*At the moment, '''aviation''' is estimated to account for 4.9% of man-made global warming. It is, however, the faster growing, yet least efficient mode of transport. <ref>European Federation for Transport and Environment AISBL. (2017). ''Aviation.'' Retrieved from https://www.transportenvironment.org/what-we-do/aviation</ref>.
*Today, 78% of European citizens are currently living in cities<ref>Market Place of the European Innovation Partnership on Smart Cities and Communities. (2017). ''Cities - key for Europe.'' Retrieved from https://eu-smartcities.eu/about/european_context</ref>. The GHG emissions from '''urban transport''' constitute a large share of GHG emissions and many cities rely heavily on road transportation.
Identifying the main links between accessibility to transport, diversity and social mobility allows to understand the sociological aspect of the topic. The fact that mobility is connected to many fundamental aspects of an individual’s life, lays at the basis of this consideration. Generally, low access to transportation threatens to limit a person’s opportunities to '''access health care, education and jobs'''. It is therefore that mobility is such a relevant topic for society and that existing barriers to the access to transportation are so closely tied to '''social inequality'''.
To a large extent, inequalities in the unequal access to mobility stem stems from the varying '''user costs''' for different modes of transportation: faster modes such as cars or trains are more often more expensive than slower modes such as walking or cycling. This is particularly the case for '''rural areas''', in which transportation infrastructure is often insufficient. There, individuals without private cars such as young, elderly or unemployed, are particularly vulnerable victim to the a lack of affordable mobility options<ref>The Telegraph. (2014). ''Rural communities more isolated as transport forgotten''. Retrieved from: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/road-and-rail-transport/10569800/Rural-communities-more-isolated-as-public-transport-forgotten.html</ref>. The problem is, however, also increasingly important for '''urban areas'''. According to experts, there is and has been an overemphasis of “higher speed” in urban planning, meaning that the transportation infrastructure would be mainly designed in a way to respond for a growing demand of faster transportation. Thereby, the aspect of “high density” seems to be neglected. In such an approach, there is a stronger focus on transportation responding to the growing travel demand as a tool to achieving social justice, ensuring that transport is affordable, easy to access for all parts of the society<ref>Litmann, T. (2017). ''Evaluating Accessibility for Transportation Planning''. Retrieved from http://www.vtpi.org/access.pdf</ref>.
===Global dimension of issue===
Looking at the topic on a European level is only a part of the problem. Taking the '''global differences in transport developments''' into consideration, this becomes evident. Overall, the highest increase in transport demands and the involved GHG emissions is expected to take place in '''developing countries'''<ref>OECD. (2010). ''OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050.'' Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/env/cc/49082173.pdf
</ref>. Furthermore, the UN estimates that these countries account for close to 90% of urbanisation worldwide<ref>United Nations. (2014). ''World’s population increasingly urban with more than half living in urban areas.'' Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/population/world-urbanization-prospects-2014.html</ref>. This is particularly relevant as sustainable and accessibly transport will be central to addressing the overall problem. The strong societal and global environmental impacts that are generated by transportation give good reason to view the topic from a global perspective.
===Measures at the European level===
*In 1996, the EU established the '''Trans-European Transport Networks programme (TEN-T)''' to enhance the European infrastructure network. The programme consisting consists of a variety of infrastructural projects aiming to improve the cohesion, interconnection and interoperability of trans-European transport<ref>European Commission. (2017). TEN-T Projects. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/inea/en/ten-t/ten-t-projects </ref>.
*Adopted in 2009 by the European Commission, the '''Action Plan on Urban Mobility''' includes measures to help local, regional and national authorities in achieving their goals for sustainable urban mobility<ref>European Commission. (2017). ''Action Plan on urban mobility.'' Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/urban_mobility/action_plan_en</ref>. In 2013, this commitment was reinforced with 2013 Urban Mobility Package<ref>European Commission. (2017). ''Urban Mobility Package.'' Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/urban_mobility/ump_en</ref>.
*Adopted in 2016, the '''Fourth Railway Package''' aims to improve the competitiveness, quality and cost-efficiency of rail transport by opening it to the market and facilitating railway undertakings beyond single Member States<ref>European Commission. (2017). ''Fourth Railway Package of 2016.'' Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/rail/packages/2013_en</ref>.
*There is a set of Some European legislation concerning directly addresses the use of alternative fuels.The 2009 '''Renewable Energy Directive (RED''') set legally binding targets for Member States to obtain at least 10% of their transport fuels from renewable sources by 2020<ref>European Commission. (2017). ''Renewable energy directive.'' Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/renewable-energy/renewable-energy-directive</ref>. As the transport sector achieved a 6% share of renewable energy in 2015, some Member States will have to intensify their efforts in order to meet this target<ref>European Commission. (2017). ''Progress Report.'' Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/renewable-energy/progress-reports</ref>. Additionally, the 2014 '''Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Directive - (AFID''') requires Member States to develop a national policy framework for the market development of alternative fuels and their infrastructure<ref>European Commission. (2017). ''Alternative fuels for sustainable mobility in Europe.'' Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/cpt_en</ref>. The 2015 Fuel Quality Directive limit limits the share of biofuel that can be counted towards the 2020 renewable energy targets to 7%<ref>EUR-Lex. (2015). ''Directive (EU) 2015/1513 of the European Parliament and of the Council.'' Retrieved from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32015L1513</ref>.
*The EU has several '''financial instruments''' to support investment and research in the area of transport, such as the [[Horizon 2020 work programme]] and the [[Connecting Europe Facility]].
===European States and Local Authorities===
Transport is a policy area in which both the EU and the Member States legislateholds legislative competence. '''National Governments''' therefore play a key role in the making policy decisions-making process, infrastructure investments as well as implementing respective EU legislation. National approaches vary in many aspects, with some Member States being more ambitious in shifting towards sustainable transportation than others.
Often, '''cities and local authorities''' are responsible for urban planning and transport infrastructure. While measures taken by different cities vary largely<ref>EPOMM. (2017). ''TEMS - The EPOMM Modal Split Tool.'' Retrieved fromhttp://www.epomm.eu/tems/result_cities.phtml?more=1</ref>, '''sustainable urban transportation concepts''' include the establishment of public space for low-emission mobility including cycling and walking as well as accessible public transport. There has been both governmental and non-governmental efforts to foster '''cooperation and exchange''' of best practices among cities. On a European level, these include EPOMM <ref>EPOMM. (2017). ''Overview.'' Retrieved from http://www.epomm.eu/index.php?id=2663</ref>, Smart Cities and Communities<ref>European Commission. (2017). ''Smart Cities and Communities.'' Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/eip/smartcities/</ref> and EUROCITIES<ref>UROCITIES. (2016). ''about EUROCITIES.'' Retrieved from http://www.eurocities.eu/eurocities/about_us</ref>. To a much smaller extent, there has also been effort for global cooperation of cities such as Action Platform: Urban Electric Mobility Initiative (UEMI)<ref>UEMI. (2017). ''about UEMI.'' Retrieved from http://www.uemi.net/uemi.html</ref>.
===Unsuitability of purely technical solutions===
Analyzing the current trends and policies, the EEA expects European passenger transport to grow by 40% between 2010 and 2050<ref>EEA. (2016). Term 2016: ''Fundamental changes needed for sustainable mobility.'' Retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/term-2016-fundamental-changes-needed.</ref> Furthermore, it expects GHG emissions in 2050 to be three times higher than targeted at envisioned by the EC. The Therefore, the report therefore suggests that '''current policies are insufficient''' in achieving sustainability. The EEA urges that besides technical solutions and improvements in the energy-efficiency of existing modes of transportation, a much more fundamental change in travel behaviour is needed. A Thus, the EES proposed a multi-perspective method is proposed to address the issue: '''Avoid, Shift, Improve''':
*''Avoid'' high transport demand: Measures that aim to reduce the individual’s behaviour in everyday practice of using certain transportation.
*''Shift'' to more sustainable modes with low or zero emission: Measures that facilitate a shift from aviation and road to more energy efficient modes such as waterborne and public transport as well as cycling or walking.
Some factors can be identified that appear to hamper the exploitation of already existing opportunities, such as new transportation technologies, or mobility concepts. These include:
* '''investment in certain infrastructures''': In 2014, the investment into road infrastructure accounted for 52% of European investment in transport. Such high levels are argued to generate new demand, reinforcement of car-dependency, hindering and hinder investment in more sustainable transporttransportation.
[[File:Investment in transport infrastructure - EEA 2016.png|thumb|Investment in transport infrastructure - EEA 2016]]
===Possibilities for change===
A variety of different actions is discussed as carrying holding the potential to create sustainable and accessible transport. In the following, a few options are presented:
*'''Taxation''' constitutes a possible tool to encourage the development and usage of more sustainable alternatives, as for example fuel in the aviation sector. An '''internalisation of external costs''', such as environmental destruction, into the price of transportation could affect consumers decision in their mobility choices. However, high pricing of certain modes of transportation could also increase social injustice in access.
*Measures to '''lower the purchase costs of electric vehicles''' could increase sustainable private mobility, might however allowing more people to use them as alternative. However, there are concerns that facilitated access to electric vehicles could reinforce the reliance of private transportation and thus ultimately have a possible rebound effect , resulting in higher emissions and energy-usage. *'''Shared mobility''', including car sharing, on-demand ride services, ride-sharing and bike sharing, might be increasingly provided by local authorities or private companies such as Car2Go or DriveNow. There However, the are, however, concerns about a possible reverse effect of car sharing, with a decline in public transport ultimately leading to higher emissions<ref>The Guardian. (2017). ''What if Uber kills off public transport rather than cars?'' Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2017/jan/13/uber-lyft-cars-public-transport-cities-commuting</ref>. Additionally, there is a controversy about exists concerning unfair competition of sharing mobility services, with several countries having banned Uber<ref>The Independent. (2017). ''Uber: Which countries have banned the controversial taxi app.'' Retrieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/uber-ban-countries-where-world-taxi-app-europe-taxi-us-states-china-asia-legal-a7707436.html</ref>.
*'''Public-private partnerships''' promise a more competitive, higher quality and seamless transport.
*'''Multimodality''': the combination of different modes of transport bring hope for a reduction of road transport in urban areas, offering even more public space for zero-emission mobility. At the same time, shared mobility can supplement public transport in more peripheral areas, that would otherwise be inaccessible.
*'''Information and communications technology (ICT)''' enables '''demand responsive transport services''', which could provide more efficient and accessible public transport in rural areas<ref>Ringalink. (2017). ''Demand responsive transport.'' http://www.ringalink.ie/demand-responsive-transport.html</ref>.
*Large potential is seen in the investment into '''technological transportation innovations''' such as '''autonomous vehicles (AVs)'''<ref>Government Technology. (2014). ''How Transportation Technologies Will Change Everything.'' Retrieved from http://www.govtech.com/transportation/How-Transportation-Technologies-Will-Change-Everything-.html</ref> or even more visionary projects like the hyperloop<ref>TechChrunch. (2017). ''Hyperloop Transportation Technologies plans to connect all of Europe, starting with the Czech Republic.'' Retrieved from https://techcrunch.com/2017/01/18/hyperloop-transportation-technologies-plans-to-connect-all-of-europe-starting-with-the-czech-republic/</ref>. There are, however, controversies about these transportations, including concerns about the environmental meaningfulness, security, and economic feasibility<ref>The Guardian. (2016). ''Hyperloop and our misplaced love of futuristic technology.'' Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/aug/14/hyperloop-elon-musk-futuristic-technology-transport</ref>.
Global megatrends such as population growth and urbanisation give rise to new challenges for passenger transportation. On the one hand, there is a need for transportation to respond to the mobility needs of people and become more accessible. On the other hand, the transport sector generates environmentally harmful emissions which need to be reduced. For the TRAN committee, this poses questions such as:
*Do Are accessibility to transport and sustainability oppose each othercounterproductive? *Are they mutually exclusive and do they require a trade-off or can could they be combined?
Current research suggests that the future developments development under the existing legislation are is insufficient in achieving policy goals to reduce GHG emissions. Taking the model ‘’Avoid, Shift, Improve’’ in account: *How explicit and restrictive should measures be if they seek to evoke trigger behavioural change?
Having these general considerations in mind, the topic can be viewed on the local, national, European and global policy level, with a variety of governmental and non-governmental actors involved. Moreover, it appears that there are ample opportunities for an improvement of transportation, including technological innovations, ICT, and shared mobility. Still, there seem to be factors that hinder the exploitation of such opportunities.
*What roles should local authorities, Member States and companies play?
While various cities within and outside of Europe have already implemented sustainable and accessible mobility concepts very successfully, Many many others have not yet undergone such a development.
*How can the exchange of best practices among cities and local authorities be facilitated?
